The history of Russian and Soviet forward looking infrared, infrared homing missiles, infrared line scanning, infrared search and track, low light level television, and image intensification devices.
History of Soviet and Russian Night Vision Technology
In this essay we will go over the history of soviet and Russian night vision technology and debunk many myths. We will go over all areas relating to night vision technology.
LLLTV = Low Light Level Television
IRLS = Infrared Line Scanning
IRST = Infrared Search and Track
FLIR = Forward Looking Infrared
IID = Image Intensification Devices
IRHM = Infrared Homing Missiles
Areas that will be added are laser based imaging and early flash photography.
This is mainly about disproving 4 ideas.
Soviets never had FLIR (or only few Prototypes)
Russia had to buy French FLIR to catch up to 2nd Generation
Russia has no domestic 3rd Generation FLIR
That the soviets were decades behind the US in night vision (image intensifiers)
So let's go over thermal imaging and debunk this idea that the Soviets never had thermals because it's so hilariously wrong. It's funny how so many experts on Russian equipment have this idea that
● Soviets couldn't produce working thermals
● Russia had to buy French thermals to catch up
These experts include Ryan of CRIB tankograd, paul (overscan) of secret projects forum and andrei tarasenko of btvt2019. These people have many problematic opinions, which is a problem since people consider them experts and they are in many ways, I'll go over some of them here. Ryan seems to think that 3rd Gen quality image intensifiers aren't remotely competitive to 1st Gen thermals (which is bull shit BTW and ill explain in a bit), paul thinks that soviets couldn't produce planar arrays due to manufacturing problems (debunked in my myths of russian equipment post) he also regularly brings up how soviets were behind usa in electronics but doesn't give any context, that being they were sanctioned and cut off from global economy (see my myths of USSR post) and bizarrely claims the soviets had no working FLIR systems, his envy of yefim Gordon and carlo koppo is also not well hidden whilst andrei is a meme at this point and his hatred and blatant bias against UVZ is well known, he has had so many brain dead takes I've genuinely lost count (I go over a few of them in my debunking myths of russian army post) from saying the armata program is a failure despite two out of 3 of the vehicles being in production, him saying BMD-4 is bad because of poor armour oblivious to the modern ones with add in composite armour and the fact it needs to be light to be airborne, to him saying Su-30SMs Khibiny-U ECM System doesn't work because it was shot down, a statement so laughably child like it borders on parody and completely removes any credibility he had as a military analyst. Ryan from CRIB also kicked me out of his discord despite me being unbelievably respectful (bordering on ass kissing) which is just sad tbh although might have been some mods, some of his members were also very ignorant on subjects.
Soviets used thermals on mass, but on reconnaissance aircraft and vehicles.
It's strange why soviets would only utilise thermals on recon equipment when their head armour designers emphasised that T-80U and BMP-3 MUST have a thermal imager to be competitive, whilst definitely an exaggeration in the early 80s, by the 90s with the proliferation of 2nd gen this was 100% true.
"Their thermal imagers didn't work that's why"
The initial Agava had problems with identification range and image stabilisation but the 1PN59 and 19N71 used on PRP-4 and BRM-3K were perfectly fine and were utilised on at least over 100 production soviet vehicles whilst 1PN66 would be produced for russia and 2nd gen 1PN79 and 1PN86 would be mass produced for Russia and produced on hundreds of soviet systems with huge exports with no issues.
Something To remember was the quality of thermals back then was very poor, they had very poor visibility in bad weather, stabilisation issues and poor identification ranges. Whilst Soviets invested heavy into image intensifiers, however it was clear by the late 80s and early 90s when 2nd Generation thermals were beginning to appear in mass that image intensification devices were going to become obsolete.
There's also Given that (based on studies during cold war) around 90% of the regions in mainland eastern europe would be fought at distances on average no greater than 1400m and most areas average out at around 700 to 900m and defensively this would have Illumination and modern soviet tanks like T-80U, T-80B, T-72B, T-72A and T-64B that use TPD-K1, 1G46 and 1G42 digital periscopic optical sights that would easily identify tank sized targets at those ranges in day time, whilst TPN-1M-49-23, TPN-3-49, 1K13 and BPK-1-42 used on T-64B, T-72A, T-72B, T-80B, BMP-2, BMP-3 and BMD-2 would have no issue detecting tanks using active Illumination at 1400m whilst T01-K01 used by T-80U and T-90 would have no trouble at 1400m passive, in fact most could detect over 1000m passively with ease.
The big difference is that thermal imagers on tanks like M1 Abrams, Leopard 2 and Challenger 1 have built in laser rangefinders and can perfom digital target lead, whilst TPN-1M-49-23 and TPN-3-49 sights used on T-64B, T-80B and T-72A only have stadiametric rangefinders, meaning rangefinding is fully manual, along with fact they are not connected to FCS. Although it should be noted at ranges under 2000m when using APFSDS or GLATGMs ballistic parameters (wind, drop, can't etc) is pretty irrelevant due to the nature of these rounds (their velocity). Sights like 1K13-2 used on BMP-3 are multi-channel (day/night) and have built in laser rangefinders and can perfom target lead, whilst sights like the T01-K01 used by T-80U and T-90 can be slaved to the main sights laser rangefinder thanks to dependent stabilisation that is connected to main sight. Sights like BPK-1-42 used on BMPs and BMDs only have manual stadiametric rangefinding with manual lead and superelevation full stop, but it should be noted that this was the norm for infantry fighting vehicles, MARDER, AMX-10P, LAV-52, M2 Bradley and Warrior were the same, only advanced IFVs like BMP-3 and Type 89 had a computerised FCS with sights capable of dynamic lead calculation and automatic rangefinding, followed by the CV90.
Although it should be noted that the detection ranges of TPN-3-49 and 1K13-49 are 1.1 to roughly 2 km meaning at those ranges whilst using APFSDS, the ballistic factors are practically null due how fast they go so manual target lead can be easily done.
As explained prior Ryan from CRIB seems to think 3rd Gen or 3rd Generation quality image intensifiers with identification ranges of 1300 to 2000m and detection ranges of 2000 to 3000m is worse than thermals that have identification ranges of 1000 to 1500m and detection ranges of 2000 to 3000m. Now as explained above yes for tanks there is an objective limitation (ie in most cases you can utilise target lead with image intensification sights) but bizarrely on his BMP-2 and BMP-3 page he still claimed that the night sights are still much worse than those on Bradley or warrior, How ? The original ISU thermal sight on M2 Bradley had a detection range of 2000-3000m and identification range of 800-1200m, the BMP-2s BPK-1-42 has a passive to active detection range of 700 to 1200m and identification range of 500 to 800m, sure this is slightly worse but both BMP and brad use manual rangefinding, the BMP-3s 1K13-2 is a whole other story, it has a passive to active detection range of 1200 to 2000m and identification range of 800 to 1300m but can perfom digital target lead, so is FAR superior at 2 km> ranges. So very peculiar opinions by tankograd.
It should also be noted that in actual peer or near peer warfare fighting is done during the day. Strikes at night are mostly either spec ops or done because the opponent has poor night fighting abilities.
It was largely unknown how well such tanks would perform against tanks with such thermal sights until the Ukraine war, there have been documented cases of such tanks (image intensifiers with no target lead) successfully beating tanks with thermals, examples include a Russian T-72B against Leopard 2A6 and Ukrainian T-64BV against Russian T-72B3.
It should also be noted that soviet tanks, doctrine wise, would be used for infantry support and anti fortification. Anti tank duties would be for dedicated anti armour attack aircraft like Mi-24V and MiG-27M, whilst the dedicated anti armour night attacker of that time would have been the MiG-27K with S-8s, Kh-25s and Kh-29s, there was also the experimental Su-25T.
Moving on.
Many in military analysis circles would have you think the soviets had no thermals in production, in fact I myself Believed the common myth that the soviets struggled to build thermals and the only thermal imager they had was the crappy Agava made in late 80s as a desperate attempt to catch up with the west.
But what if I told you that the Soviets had created over not just one thermal imager but dozens.
In truth the Soviets had created no less than 50 infrared imaging devices with over 20 of them being produced for Soviet equipment for the USSR. Exact list as below.
4× LLLTV systems for 7 aircraft
1× LLLTV system for 3 naval guns
6× LLLTV system for 8 SAMs
7x infrared line scanners on 17 systems
6× Thermal imagers for 6 aircraft
6× Thermal imagers for 7 vehicles
24x experimental thermal imagers
4x thermal imagers for portable launchers
1x FPA seeker for munition
It is genuinely a mystery why they were not used on tanks or IFVs. Top theories are.
Defensive doctrine was largely built around an attack by the usa and in their home ground they would have control
Complacency, since 50s soviet tankers trained to use two sights with the main day sight being the primary sight used so switching to a system that combines both.
Politics, higher ups maybe refused to see thermals as being better than advanced image intensifiers
Least likely. Spies embedded in higher up like tolkachev may have persuaded brass that thermals wasn't going to be needed
The fact that many of the rare minerals needed for these devices electronics were only accessible in African or South American countries, as we discussed previously in the USSR solid state electronics section in my myths around USSR post, the USSR was cut off from much of the global market and was not even on talking terms with the resource rich China, so it's all well having a few production vehicles with them but in all out war for mass production they might not have had enough.
In the end. It is a mystery as the soviets by mid 80s fully had the capabilities to mass produce quality 1st Generation thermal imagers on mass and okay 2nd Generation.
Now we will go over the history of each device.
Low Light Level Television (LLLTV)
LLLTV systems utilise various technologies always involving slaving an image to a screen (usually a digital image such as CCD), These were some of the most common devices used by soviet attack aircraft and SAMs. These were a video system that recorded live images combined with an IR scanner that overlayed it to give it a "near" infrared imaging system so an IR band of 1.0 to 1.1 μm, Early FLIR systems (or Gen 0) are classified as this as whilst they produce enough quality for full night vision their ability to detect IR (hear emissions) is very limited but combined with an active Illumination laser they were very potent.
LLLTV has 1 advantage over FLIR and that's distance, given that it's just a TV sight with an IR scanner.
The Soviets first low light level television system was the IR based IVP-2 Samotsvet for MiG-21S and MiG-21R aircraft in late 60s which was a very low definition LLLTV.
Their first high definition system with the 576×720p LLLTV on Kaira-1 on MiG-27K in 1974
Followed with Kaira-24 on Su-24M in 1977
Then there was the 576×720p Merkuriy for Su-25T developed in early 80s.
Various Low and high definition systems used on the following.
9Sh33A for Krug-M3
9Sh311 for Kub-M3 and S-75M4
9Sh38-2 for Osa-AK
9Sh319 for Tor
DVU-2 on AK-100, AK-176 and AK-130
On to Russian versions
Platan LLLTV.
Infrared Line Scanning (IRLS)
IRLS is a method used to obtain thermal images and temperature profiles of objects. Unlike traditional thermal cameras that capture a complete image in a single frame (area scanning as in FLIR), IRLS builds a 2D thermal image by capturing successive lines of temperature data as the object moves beneath it.
Early systems were basically thermal photographs but as the technology advanced live thermal imaging was allowed thanks to increases in line scanner speeds and digital image technology. IRLS was the most common system used for night time reconnaissance from the late 60s till the early 80s when in the mid to late 1980s it was largely replaced with FLIR systems.
1st Generation.
Basic 10 to 60 element detectors with slow scanning allowing thermal photography.
2nd Generation
100 to 256x element detectors with live TV imaging.
The Soviets first IRLS system was the Photon-4 that was an infrared line scanner that was for use on the TGR live TV reconnaissance satellite tested in 1965 that utilised a very basic ~10x element matrix. This however failed to materialise due to technology issues getting the live TV image.
The Soviets first produced IRLS system was the Zima series of infrared line scanners developed in the mid to late 60s, It was broken up into two systems.
Zima-7R was a very low resolution thermal photography system and utilised a very basic 10x to 30x element matrix with an IR band of 3-5 μm, it was used by Tu-143, Tu-95RT and Tu-22RDM
Zima-8R IRLS was developed in the mid 70s and was the Soviets first 2nd Generation IRLS system and utilised an improved 60x to 100x element matrix with an IR band of 8-13 μm and was an improved system with improved low definition resolution and allowing live TV image transmission to ground units or aircraft. These were utilised by Tu-243, Su-24MR and Tu-22MR reconnaissance aircraft and also used on the KKR-2A and Prostor recon pods for Su-17MR, Yak-28R-TARK-2 and MiG-21R-TARK-2.
This was followed by the Agat-1 camera on the Almaz space station during the late 70s that used the Last-ochka-65 thermal photography IRLS. This was followed by with the Almaz-T reconnaissance satellite during early 80s that both utilised the Volga-S1 IR line scanner for live transmitted infrared imaging recordings, this would also be followed with the much higher resolution Volga-S2 for the Almaz-1 satellites which was the first digital CCD live TV IRLS in satellites in the mid 80s that gave high end 2nd Generation infrared image qualities.
Infrared Line scan image
Higher quality vs low quality IRLS
The first Soviet infrared homing missiles were the R-8T and R-4T developed in mid 50s and tested in 1958 for the T-47/PT8-4, it would enter service in 1962 for the Su-11 as the TGS-1, which utilised a spin scan seeker, these would be followed with the Su-15, Tu-28 and Yak-28P from 1964 onwards. The Soviets then made the R-3T in 1961 for the MiG-21PF and MiG-19S which utilised the TGS-3 conical scanning seeker and would enter service in 1962 for the MiG-21PF. The R-3T was a reverse engineered AIM-9B from one captured in 1958.
The soviets first 2nd Generation Missile was the R-98T in 1965-1967 for Su-15T with TGS-14T seeker then in 1967-1968 with the R-3TM and R-40T for MiG-21S and MiG-25P with a TGS-13TM and TGS-40 seeker and then finally the R-60 in 1970 with OGS-60TI Komar MWIR seeker for nearly all soviet fighter aircraft. The R-60 set the standard for such missiles with incredible manuvarabilities and side aspect tracking
3rd Generation
1st 3rd Gen with was the R-23T with TGS-23 for MiG-23 in 1974 This was followed throughout the 70s with the R-14, R-98MT, R-40TD and lastly R-60M with OGS-75 Komar-M.
4th Generation
The soviets first 4th generation missile was the R-27T in 1979 which utilised a Geofizika-36T cooled pseudoimaging seeker with gatewidth IRCCM for use on MiG-29 and Su-27, in 1981 this was followed with the R-40TD1 for MiG-31 which used the cooled pseudoimaging Geofizika-35T1 seeker and the R-73 which used the Mayak-80 seeker, both are IRCCM cooled pseudoimaging seekers for use with the MiG-31, MiG-29 and Su-27 then the 9M39V in the mid 80s for use on Ka-50 and Mi-28. Soviets also trialled the R-33T with the TGS-33 IR cooled pseudoimaging seeker but was not adopted.
Improved 4th generation models were utilised throughout the 90s and 2000s with the R-73M and R-27ET in 1990 with the Geofizika-36T and Mayak-80M, R-74 in late 90s with Mayak-80BM and then the R-74M in 2012 which entered service in 2016 which uses the new fully digital dual band Impuls-90 cooled seeker.
5th Generation
Russia's first 5th generation missile was the Verba-V in 2016 for use on Mi-28NM and Ka-52M which utilised a 9M336V multispectral optical seeker, Followed by the R-74M2 tested in 2018 and entered service in 2023. The Karfagen-760 seeker uses a fully digital pseudoimaging HgCdTe seeker with LOAL abilities and multi band, IOG, MITL, gatewidth and seeker shut off IRCCM
Forward Looking Infrared (FLIR)
FLIR is a thermal imaging systems used to sense infrared radiation, essentially detecting heat signatures from objects and converting them into a direct live visual image or video.
Before we start, there is no actual universally agreed upon definition on what defines thermal Generations, there are three common versions with different standards.
Device Generation
Gen 0 = Single or few elements.
Gen 1 = vector detectors, usually containing 64 or more elements with a two dimensional mechanical image scanner.
Gen 2 = Sub matrices introduced with TDI added again with two dimension scanning
Gen 3 = whole matrices with no mechanical scanning for gaining 2D image and no moving prisms and no tilting mirror. The detector elements are located on a two dimensional focal plane array (FPA), i.e. a chip containing one detector for each pixel that is generated as output
I dont consider Gen 0 to be true FLIR it's more akin to IR based LLLTV as it doesn't produce enough IR hue to sufficiently detect IR radiation at any good distance.
Microbolometer Generation
Gen 1 = 256x256 or 320×240 UPF
Gen 2 = 512x512 or 640x480 UPF
Gen 3 = 1024x1024 or 1280×960 UPF
Thermal image Resolution Generation
Gen 1 = Low/Standard Definition so thermal image resolutions of 320×240p, 388×288p and 480×380p.
Gen 2 = High Definition so thermal image resolutions of 800×600p, 640×480p and 756×576p
Gen 3 = FHD to UHD so thermal image resolutions of 1280×1024, 1024×720p and 1280×1080p.
My Version.
Generation 0
FPA Resolution: 80×60, 120×80p and 160×120p
Matrix Element: 10x, 20x and 30x
Device: Vector detector
Refresh rate: 10-20 Hz
NEP SNR: 2:1 to 5:1
NETp: 200-300 mK
Pixel Pitch: 40-60 µm
Generation 1
FPA Resolution: 256×128, 320×256 and 388×284
Matrix Element: 64x, 128x and 256x
Microbolometer: 320x240
Device: Vector detector with 2D scan
Refresh rate: 20-40 Hz
NEP SNR: 10:1 to 15:1
NETp: 80-200 mK
Pixel Pitch: 40-60 µm
Generation 2
FPA Resolution: 500×380, 640×512 and 756×578
Matrix Element: 48x4, 4x288 and 2x256
Microbolometer: 640x480
Device: sub matrices with TDI and 2D scan
Refresh rate: 20-50 Hz
NEP SNR: 20:1 to 30:1
NETp: 70-40 mK
Pixel Pitch: 30-40 µm
Features: Automatic target tracking with full 2x axis image stabilisation
Generation 3
Resolution: 640×512, 1280×1024 & 1280×960
Matrix Element: 640x480, 320x256 and 640x512
Microbolometer: 1280x960
Device: Vector detector with no mechanical scanning
Refresh rate: 30-60 Hz
NEP SNR: 40:1 to 60:1
NETp: 10-30 mK
Pixel Pitch: 10-25 µm
Features: Full automation of tracking, acquisition and identification with enhanced image stability
Need to score at least 5 or have the correct device. If it scores at least 5, for example a 1st Gen would be 1+.
My SMR main document has Full information for exact criteria.
“you can't just make up Generations”
My guy, there is no definitive answer.
If you really wanted to get technical. There could be 7 Generations.
Gen 1 = basic thermal photography
Gen 2 = true infrared line scanning
Gen 3 = 64x element with 120×160 to 240×120 resolution live video FLIR
Gen 4 = 128x to 256x element with 320×240 to 380×280 FPA with two dimension scanning basic II
Gen 5 = Sub matrices or improved MBs With 2x288 to 4x288 matrix element with 640x480 to 756×568 FPAs with TDI done during scanning and target tracking
Gen 6 = 650×512 to 768×576 FPA with fully automated tracking, acquisition and locking
Gen 7 = 1024×720 to 1280×1080 FPAs
Like people think there are some objective mathematical criteria companies adhere to when classifying thermals lol, it's mostly just marketing.
For example, people say that resolution is all that matters yet ignore SEOSS and Saphir which are all classified as 3rd Generation but only have resolutions of 640×512p or Swedish PLSS which is only 640×480p.
They say sub matrices can't be 3rd Generation yet Ibris-K and KLW-1 Asteria both 4x288 sub matrix elements are classified as 3rd Generation.
They say 3rd Generation is defined by only high definition whole UPF matrix like 640x480 then by this logic the marketed 3rd Generation Agat-MDT or ATTICA with matrix elements of 320x256 and 388x288 with use of micro scan/image interpolation are bumped to FPA resolutions of 640×512p and 768×576p aren't 3rd Gen.
See 3rd Generation MATIS with a 320x240 matrix.
Another issue is people using videos of thermals as proof of resolution or ranges.
That's the Sniper pod which carries AN/AAQ-33 3rd gen imager with a 640x512p thermal image resolution and 320x256 format yet looks low definition.
That's the M1A1FEP with the same 2GEN-FLIR as SepV2 and SA with ~800×600p resolution at 1400m (less than half its range to be able to identify a tank sized target)
There's also imagers that can micro scan or perform image interpolation to digitally increase resolution, very common on third generation matrices. Examples of how it works below
Right is raw image, left is after digital improvement.
Sane again, left is raw image whilst right is digitally improved with U-Scan.
This looks very blurry
Yet here is image from same imager again.
There's also the fact that you don't know what mode is being used, (is it WFOV or NFOV and what contrast level is it at) so when you see people using videos or photographs of thermal images without giving details and trying to act as though it proves something (like the imagers detection or identification range or its quality or Generation) ignore them, as they don't know what they're talking about.
So in short, there is no right or wrong when talking about Generations.
But first, terminology.
Thermal image resolution = focal plane array resolution. So basically what's the real resolution of the thermal image displayed on screen, note the thermal image on screen NOT the visual light image as many people confuse normal screen resolution with thermal resolution , for example the TPV module on Berezhok and SADA II on the SepV1 are 640×480p FPAs yet they are slaved to digital displays that have an 800×600p video resolution, similarly the Su-35S has an imager with a 800×600p thermal image resolution yet is slaved to a screen with a 2140×1440p resolution. But modern imagers can perform image interpolation to increase thermal resolution, for example 3rd Generation ATTICA matrix and FEM18 matrix have element formats of 384x288 and 640x512 but through digital technologies their resolution displayed on the screen are 768×576p and 1280×1024p. Higher end 3rd Generation thermal imagers such as the Catherine-MP use megapixel whole matrices so that the matrix element is 1280x720 with a 1280×1024p thermal image resolution (can be improved to 2560×2048p image resolution), this gives much superior WFOV identification, crisper image quality and much better image stability when moving.
Matrix element = Also known as FPA format, this is how many individual elements there are in the sensor, early sensors were very simple 32 or 64 elements (0 Gen) then with single 100, 128x or 256x element matrices were introduced with 1st generation, when 2nd Generation came around it introduced sub matrices such as 4x48 or 4x288 and used TDI and when 3rd Generation came around it built upon this and introduced whole matrix elements such as 320x256 or 640x512 with no scanning.
μm = this is the infrared band the imager sees in which is 1-14, early uncooled systems where at the lower end but 1st and 2nd Gen settled on mid high level with early 3rd Gen expanding the mid to high region and higher end 3rd Generation going back to the lower end with long waves.
(Some of the FPA and format matrices are estimates, if no known data the last common one will be used along with data on its abilities for example if it was said to be a much more capable sight than previous ones, a similar example LLLTV resolutions if not known are based on the TV sight and range abilities)
0 Generation FLIR
Soviets started development of FLIR in the early 70s with numerous experimental imagers made and in 1979, thermal imagers for ground vehicles began.
1st Generation FLIR
The first known soviet equipment to utilise a fully functioning 1st Generation FLIR system would be the T-80B in 1982 which was trialled with the T01-P01 sight that would have been for the T-80U, with an Agava matrix with a 50× element device with a 256×192p thermal image resolution and an IR band of 3-5 μm, however it was said to have a had a very low MTBF rate along with very poor FOV, for these reasons they were not adopted and the T-80U would stick with the solid 1G46 digital periscopic sight with the equally solid T01-K01 night sight with the Buran-PA 2++ Generation image intensifier capable of target lead.
Early soviet thermal image
comparison vs Abrams and Leopard type sight in early 80s.
The first ground vehicle to receive production thermals was the PRP-4 reconnaissance vehicle that entered development in the early 80s that utilised the Posobiye 1st Generation FLIR system with the 1PN59 matrix which was a 50x element device with a 256×192p thermal image resolution and an IR band of 3-5 μm with a refresh rate of 24 Hz, the vehicle was approved for production and entered service in 1985 with around 100 to 300 being built.
300m range (similar era sight)
The first ATGM Launcher to test a thermal sight would be Konkurs-M and Fagot-M which in the late 80s trialled the Trakt-1 FLIR sight with a 1PN65 matrix which was a 100x element device with a 320×256p thermal image resolution and an IR band of 8-12 μm, however these would not see adoption until adter USSR collapse, with them being approved for export production in early 00s and entering service in the mid 00s with a few thousand made for export customers.
Then in 1989-1990 the Kollier sight for the 9P148 and 9P149 upgrades was trialed which was a 1PN66 matrix with a 128x element device but collapse of USSR prevented their adoption with 1PN66 being approved for production 9P148s in the 90s with over 100 9P148 being in service by early 2000s.
In 1986 they developed a new sight with the T01-P02 sight for T-80UK and T-90K, these introduced the Agava-2 with a 384×288p thermal image resolution and their first 256x element device with an IR band of 8-14 μm and improved refresh rates up to 50 Hz and image interpolation, not only did this greatly improve identification ranges (2km) but also greatly improved image stabilisation.
This was a sight that beat any image intensifier, similar to other late 1st Generation FLIR used on Challenger 2, M1A2 Abrams, Leopard 2A5 and Leclerc.
Agava-2 was approved for production on command models of T-80U in 1988 (although its not known if any were ever built, likely very few) and eventually T-90s in 1990 (after Progress-2M was cancelled) and was meant for Object 477, however economic problems after USSR collapse meant only T-90K command variants received the sight whilst normal T-90s received T01-K01 whilst 477 was canceled.
Domestic and export T-80UMs and T-80UEs received the sights in the mid 90s with over 200 made for export and domestic markets and T-90K would be approved for production in 1995 with a few dozen made.
The Soviets first and only infrared imaging munition were the Kh-25MTP air to ground missile developed began in 1990 which utilised a basic 180x120 or 360×240 UPFA microbolometer.
The first thermal imager for aircraft would be the OLS-M developed during early to mid 80s for the new MiG-29M multi role aircraft that utilised a 384×288p thermal image resolution and 256x FPA format. (Some sources say it's an LLLTV and some just a TV, given practically all OLS systems made from early 90s, all have a FLIR channel it's a good bet the M is the same)
The first ground assault vehicle to receive production thermals was the BRM-3K recon IFV (PRP-4M that would enter service in 1988-1990 would use same thermals) developed in late 80s which used the Posobiye-2 sight system with a 1PN71 matrix which was the second production 256x element device with a 384×288p thermal image resolution and an IR band of 8-14 μm with an improved refresh rate of 50 Hz (putting it on par with top western sights of that era used on vehicles like M1A2 Abrams, Leopard 2A5, Leclerc and Challenger 2) with the vehicle being approved for production in 1990, however the collapse of the USSR prevented its adoption into mass production until 1992 similar to T-90s, however unlike the BRM-1K, which had over 3000 made, only around 70 to 100 were made due to economic issues and defence cuts after collapse of USSR.
There were also the following thermal imagers for reconnaissance aiaircraft throughout 1980s.
An-24LP / Vulkan
An-24LR / Raduga
An-12R / Yanatar
Tu-142MZ / Pingvin
Tu-142MK / ATP-12M/Teplo-4
There was also several other thermal imagers made but there function is unknown and little beyond their name is known, most are probably experimental, including
1PN89
1PN88
1PN85
1PN81
1PN80
1PN76
1PN65
T01-P03 Progress
T01-P03M Progress-M
Benefit-1
Benefit-2
Manna-2
Rubin-1
Rubin-2
Rubin-3
1K-10T
1K-10P
Stator
Stator-1
Taiga
TV-03
Filin
Much of these are likely purely experimental 0 and 1st Generation imagers developed throughout the 70s and 80s.
In the early 90s Russia developed the
T01-P01 Agava-M1 for T-80UK
TO1-PO2 Agava-2T for T-90
TO1-PO2 Agava-2RT for T-90K
TO1-PO2 Agava-2TI For T-80UM
2nd Generation FLIR
T01-P05 Progress-2 developed in mid 80s and tested in 1986 was the Soviets first 2nd Generation thermal imager that utilised a basic 48x2 sub matrix element but used TDI to achieve a thermal image resolution of 384×288p and an IR band of 8-13 μm
This lead to T01-P05 sight with the Progress-2M in late 80s that utilised a 500×384p thermal image resolution with a cooled 48x4 sub element device and an IR band of 8-13 μm with a refresh rate of 50 Hz with a greatly improved 2× axis independent image stabilisation as well as image interpolation to increase resolution and pixel count on display, at this point this was probably one of the most advanced sights in USSR for a ground vehicle, these were supposedly trialled on the T-80Us in late 80s and early 90s for adoption and were supposedly to be installed on Object 490 and T-90 however this was ditched entirely due to costs and collapse of ussr and was replaced with the T01-P02 sight that was fully functioning for T-90K that used the Agava-2 1st Gen matrix.
The first 2nd Generation thermal imager developed by the USSR for an aircraft was the Khod in 1989 which utilised a 500×384p thermal image resolution with a 48x4 sub matrix with an IR band of 8-14 μm.
In the 1990s russia worked with france and Belarus to create various sights based on the SAGEM matrix series. These include the TISAS, PLISA, Sosna, Agat-MP and Vesna-K used on T-80UE, T-72M1M, BMPT, BMP-1M, BMD-4 and BMP-3M
The first 2nd Generation thermal imager by new Russia for an aircraft would be the GOES-520 for the Ka-50N in 1996 which utilised a 500×384p thermal image resolution with a 96x4 matrix element.
Russia's first 2nd Generation domestic microbolometer would be Parus-98 for use with Borei, Lada and Yasen sub photonic masts developed in the late 1990s with a 640x480 thermal image resolution with an IR band of 8-12 μm.
Then 2nd Generation chinese microbolometer for the 1PN96MT sight in 2009 made for T-55M5 and M6 upgrades with a 640x480 microbolometer, this would later be utilised on mobilisation models of T-62M, T-72B and T-80BVs during the Ukraine war with nearly 2000 made, latest models likely use domestic parts.
The first portable 2nd Generation thermals that used French MBs would be the 1PN140 and 1PN139 thermal scopes and monocles made in 2013 which utilises a 640×480 FPA microblomoter with hundreds made. (modern versions use Russian microbolometers)
Russia's first 2nd Generation device for manpads was the 1PN97 for the Verba made in 2013 and entering service in 2015 which utilises a 640×480 UFPA microbolometer, over 1000 were made.
Russia's first post soviet FPA IIR munition was the ARS-59-TP seeker in 2003 used on the Kh-59M2 that utilised a 2nd Generation 640×480 FPA microbolometer similarly with the Tubus-2TP seeker used on Kh-29TD made in 2005 for use on Su-24M2, Su-34, Su-30SM and MiG-29M with thousands made of both.
Then with 640×480 FPA microbolometers with the Kh-58UShKE-TP anti radiation missile and Kh-59MK2 stealth land attack missile in 2015 for Russian attack aircraft then finally the Edr.85, Kh-50, Kh-MD, Kh-MD-001, KAB-50 and KAB-100 Munitions for Orion, Su-25SM3, Mi-24VM, Mi-28NM and Ka-52M. Thousands of these missiles have been made.
In the 2010s Russia introduced the Scalpel, Kub and Lancet series of loitering munitions that utilise 2nd Generation 640×480 FPA microbolometers with over 70-90,000 made.
The first domestic high end 2nd Generation thermal imager utilised by Russia was the Raduga-III series of imagers from 1995 to 2013 for SON-530, SON-730, GOES-520, GOES-321, GOES-337, GOES-342, OPS-28, OPS-24, Zarevo, Sapsan-E used on the Ka-32, Ka-226, IL-38N, Ka-52, Mi-28N, Mi-24VM, Mi-8AMTSh-VN, Mi-24PN, Mi-8MTKO and Mi-35M upgrades throughout the 2010s that utilises a 1PN99M matrix with a 768×576p thermal image resolution with an impressive 576x2 element device and an IR band of 8-14 μm, Mi-24PN entered service in 2006 with over 30 made, Mi-8MTKO entered service in 2009 with over 200 made, Mi-35M entered service in 2005 with over 200 made, Ka-52 entered service in 2011 with over 120 made, Mi-28N entered service in 2012 with over 130 made, Mi-8AMTSh-VN entered service in 2018 with over 50 made and Mi-24VM entered service in 2016 with over 100 made.
The first high end 2+ Generation thermals fitted to a tank would be the French licenced ESSA sight in 2006 for the T-90A and T-90S then Sosna-U in 2008 for T-72B3 and in 2016 for T-80BVM and BMPT which all utilise a 754×576p UFPA with a 4×288 matrix element and an IR band of 8-12 μm. The T-90A entered service in 2009 with over 400 made, the T-90S entered service around the same time with over 2000 made, T-72B3 entered service in 2010 with over 3000 made and T-80BVM entered service in 2019 with over 1000 made.
There was the FEM10 matrix developed in 2016 to replace the sofradir on Catherine-FC for Sosna-U sights. It utilises a 288x4 FPA format with thermal image resolutions of 640×512p or 754×576p. The two sights using it are the Ibris-K and Sodema for IFVs and tanks. (Sodema uses a more modern variant called FEM10M)
Then there was the Taifun reconnaissance and C2 Vehicle which utilises a 960×720p thermal image resolution with a 480×4 matrix element and an IR band of 8-12 μm with it being developed in 2007 and entering service in 2012.
3rd Generation FLIR
After the collapse of USSR the failed Progress-2M would eventually evolve into the Russian made T01-P06 sight, which started development in the mid 90s and was created in the early 2000s, that used the Nocturne matrix with a 512x256 element matrix. This was a huge leap as it was Russia's first 3rd Generation device that utilised a whole matrice with no mechanical scanning. It was made for the new T-90A tank that was prototyped in 2001 and for newer T-80UK upgrades and offered for export T-72 upgrades and supposedly to be used on the T-95 (but ditched due to costs), however the economic crisis that came in late 90s and the kickoff of the 2nd chechen war along with the fact that major funds were being diverted to the GLONASS restoration project and the fact it was increasingly expensive prevented its adoption (some T-90Ks would test them) and early T-90As would just receive T01-P02 Agava-2 or T01-K05 Buran-M, Agava-2 was pretty outdated for such a modern tank (fire control, communication and weapons wise) and Buran-M being an image intensifier was just embarrassing especially given that even “third world militaries” had tanks that used 1st Generation thermals in mass, this however would be sorted in 2006 with ESSA sights.
3000m> range at WFOV
In early 2000s russia created their first 3rd Generation imagers for aircraft with the Raduga-V series that was for their next generation of aircraft utilised from 2005 to 2023, these utilise a 1PN136 matrix with a 384x388 format utilising microscannig image interpolation to achieve thermal image resolutions of 768×776p used on SOLT-25 sights and the GOES-451M, GOES-342M OPS-28M, OPS-24-1L, SOLT-130K, 101KS-N Atoll-N, T-220I and NPK-SPP OLS-K targeting Pods for use on Mi-35P, Mi-24PN-1M, Mi-171Sh Storm, Ka-52M, Mi-28NM, MiG-29KR, MiG-29M2, MiG-35, Su-30SM2, Su-35S, Su-57, Su-25SM3, Yak-131 and Yak-130M.
Russia created with 3rd Generation imagers for the OLS-50, OLS-35 and OLSM-13SM-1 Stations in 2005 for the Su-30SM2, Su-35S, MiG-29KR and MiG-35 this utilised formats of 320x240 and 388x284 with an IR band of 8-12 μm with a 776×568p and 640×480p thermal image resolution with it entering production following year with over 200 made so far The Su-35S would enter service in 2014 with over 200 made, the MiG-29KR entered service in 2012 and started receiving upgrades after 2016 whilst MiG-35 entered service in 2019 with 8 made and Su-30SM2 entered service in 2022 with over 40 made.
In 2012 Russia created the Agat-MDT for T-90A or T-80U upgrades which utilises a 320x240 matrix element and an IR band of 8-12 μm utilised a 640×512p thermal image resolution with it being approved for upgrade of T-90As in 2019 with dozens retrofitted including all T-90AK command variants.
In 2014-2016 Russia developed their FEM18 (their first 3rd Generation thermals with a true high definition whole matrix) series of matrices (which was finalised for patent in 2018) for various sights including Victoria-TK, Bumerang-PK, TPVK-A, TPPVK-A, MTTD, PKD-M, PKT-T, PKT-K, PKK, PK-SU, PPNK and PKP-MRO which are to be for all new generation vehicles, at first it used a foreign cooling system and exported parts but was replaced with fully domestic parts during war in Ukraine, it was also their first mass produced high definition whole matrix. It utilises a 640x512 matrix element format and a 3-5 μm IR band that can be bumped up with image interpolation/microscanning to thermal image resolutions of 1280×1024p. These would enter production in 2019 first for the T-90M.
Its used on 2S35, T-90M, T-72B1MS, T-14, T-15, Kurganets-25, Typhoon-VDV, Bumerang, BMP B-19, BMP Manul, BMP Dragoon, BMP AU-220M, Sprut-SDM1, BMPT-72, New T-72M1MS and so on.
Russia's first ATGM launcher to utilise 3rd Generation thermals was the 1PN79-M3 for Kornet-EM then later editions of the 9P163 vehicles in 2010s that uses a 776×768p thermal image resolution with a 388x384 element matrix and an IR band of 3-5 μm with over 15,000 made. There was also the 1PN136 matrix for the Kornet-D systems.
The 1PN147 was also used in the latest series of Raduga with Raduga-VM for UKR-OE on Su-34M.
Russia then expanded their high end microbolometers with the Kh-38, Kh-39 and Kh-69 munition and Altius-RU and Korsar UCAVs in 2020s which utilised a 1280×960 to 1024x1024 UFPA formats.
It should be noted whilst Russia has several third generation matrices in production they have yet to build a megapixel whole matrix focal plane ("4th Gen") (at least for production). For example Catherine-MP has a thermal image resolution of 1280×1024p with a matrix format of 1280x720 . Russias best production versions use high definition 640x512 formats micro-scanned up to a thermal image resolution of 1280×1024.
Thus means a far more "crisp" image, it also allows better WFOV ranges and overall improved detection ranges and far more accurate target identification.
Russia likely has such systems in Prototype stage but has yet to be produced, its possible newer imagers use such MP formats but unknown.
Image Intensification
An image intensifier, or image intensifier tube, is the core component of night vision devices like night vision goggles. It's most commonly a vacuum tube that dramatically increases the intensity of available ambient light to allow vision in low-light conditions, such as at night.
Now before we get this out the way we need to define what Generations mean. Conventionally it means
Gen 0 = active image intensifiers
Gen 1 = passive image intensifiers
Gen 2 = MCP plate inside tube made from alkali
Gen 3 = GaAs MCP plates
Gen 2+ = Autogated improved digital MCP plates
Gen 4/3+ = thin film autogated MCP plates
But there's a problem with this especially when gauging the capabilities of tanks or vehicles in that you could have a Gen 1 device that has better results than a Gen 3 device range and capabilities wise. (TPN-1-49 that has better identification of tank sized targets in moonlight conditions than AN/PVS-7 along with better resolution)
Examples
Explains further
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=Nyw-A49Sq4g
Basically judging them SOLEY on what tube they use is not really valid when comparing actual image intensifying capabilities. Because as well will get into, soviets made mass use of 1st Generation tubes yet their image quality was no different to 2nd Gen and in some cases similar to civilian grade Gen 3 tubes.
So my criteria for Generations is as follows
Generation 0
active identification
Generation 1
Passive image intensification
<0.01 Lux minimum required
Light amplification ~1000x
Passive identification of tanks up 400m
500-1000 hours tube life
100-200 μA/lm
15-28 lp/mm
12-19 SNR
Generation 2
MCP tubes
<0.005 Lux minimum required
Light amplification ~10,000x
Passive identification of tanks up 1000m
2000-5000 hours tube life
250-500 μA/lm
30-47 lp/mm
21-25 SNR
Generation 3
GaAs MCP plates
<0.001 Lux minimum required
Light amplification ~30,000x
Passive identification of tanks up to 2000m
7000-10,000 hours tube life
600-900 μA/lm
50-72 lp/mm
26-31 SNR
Generation 4/3+
Is unique as no tank had these so Generation 4 is purely defined as devices that utilise tubes that are thin film or filmless and autogated.
If it scores at least 4 of these categories or is the correct device then it passes and is seen as 1++ for 1st Generation with 2nd Generation abilities and so on. 1st Generation tubes with high 2nd Generation quality will be 1+++ or 3rd gen be 1++++.
So let's get on with it. First, quality scale for reference.
Generation 0 Night Vision
The first Soviet successful use of active image intensification was in 1937 and from 1941 the Gamma-VEI system for naval forces was produced and in 1945 the system was evolved into TSC-8 this was piloted for tank drivers and on guns, in parallel to this was the various series of goggles that were trialled in throughout the war onwards.
The TVN-1 drivers IR sight would be rolled out in the mid 50s to various combat vehicles, this would be the first mass produced image intensifier for drivers for the USSR.
The first mass produced image intensifier for the USSR was the TKN-1 commanders sight for the T-54A in 1954.
The first production soviet night vision goggles (NVGs) would be the PN57s in 1959 this would be followed with the NSP-2 scope for sniper rifles in 1963.
PN57
The TPN-1 series was the first Soviet production passive image intensifiers for tank gunners and the the first combat vehicle to receive production image intensifiers for the gunners sight would be the T-54A in 1957 that utilised the TPN-1-22-11 aided by the OU-3 IR headlight which would be followed by the TPN-1-32-23, TPN-1-87-23 and TPN-1-41-23 for the T-55A, PT-76, T-62 and T-64 throughout the late 50s to early 60s.
The 1st Generation 1PN21A for 2A19 gun in 1965.
These would advance into the the 1PN22M on the BMP-1 made in 1965 then the TPN-1-49 (AKA "TPN-2") Karmin for T-64A and T-72 in 1974.
There was the 1PN69 for the 2S14 system.
The first Soviet portable passive night vision device would be the 1PN34 with 1st generation tubes in 1969 for AKM. Then followed with BN and PON series in early 70s.
1PN34 At 300m
Generation 2 Night Vision
The Soviets first 2nd Generation quality device would be the TKN-3M for T-64A and T-72 in 1972 then the 1PN29 for the PRP-3 trialled in 1972 and entering service in 1975, for tanks this would be followed with the TPN-3-49 for T-72A, T-64BV and T-80B starting in 1975.
The first 2nd Generation quality portable devices would be the 1PN58 scope in 1973 (for the newly built AK-74) and 1PN50 NVGs in mid 1970s this would be followed by the 1PN63, Filin-3 and PN57E NVGs from 1977 onwards and NSP-3 and H3T-1 scopes in the late 70s and early 80s.
There was also true 2nd gen 1PN53 for 2A29 in ththe early 80s at would also evolve into the 1PN53-1 for the 2A45 in 1980s.
The Soviets first true 2nd Generation portable device would be the by the ONV-I NVG in 1982-83 then 1PN51 and 1PN51-2 scopes in 1984-86.
The first soviet IFV to utilise 2nd Generation quality night vision would be the 1K13 sights in 1981 for the BMP-3 and T-72B.
We had the PNK-4S housing with Agat-S periscope on T-80U in developed 1978.
ONV-I (True Gen 2 tube)
1PN58 Gen 2 capabilities (Gen 1++ tube) at 300m
2nd gen 1PN51 (True Gen 2 tube)
You can see how they are not that much different, it's also backed by SNR, lp/mm and μA/lm numbers. (As images alone can be deceving)
2nd gen AN/PVS-4 for comparison
Generation 3 Night Vision
The Soviets first 3rd Generation quality device would be the T01-K01 sight with the Buran-PA image intensifier trialled in 1983 on T-80A and entering service in 1985 for T-80U, this would be followed with the 1PN61 for the PRP-4 in 1986, the 61 was an incredible leap as it was the Soviets first quasi digital image intensifier that instead of using just physical analogue tubes only, it actually also digitised the ranging information and displayed it on a screen for the gunner.
The TKN-4G for the BTR-80A in 1990 then BTR-90 in 90s and was the first and only true 3rd Generation image intensifier operated by USSR.
The T01-K05 and T01-K04 Sights with the Agat-M and Buran-M image intensifiers was the first "true" 3rd Generation sight for tanks mass produced by Russia in 2001, that used a GaAs ICT for the T-90A and T-80UM.
This was followed by the
In the early 90s Russia created their first true 2+ Gen tube (which can be seen as 3rd in actual capacity wise) with the 1PN93 scope which would be approved for production in 1998, these sights would be upgraded consistently with 1PN93-2 receiving improved Gen 2+ tubes and latest 1PN93-4 receiving Gen 3 in 2010s.
Russia made their first "true" 3rd Generation device for drivers with the TVK-2 in 1990s for the T-95 and T-90A Prototypes which would also be utilised for upgraded T-72s, T-80s and T-90s.
Russia created their first portable "true" 3rd Generation device (device that used gallium arsenide MCPs) with the 1PN72 for the Igla-S, then in 2001-2003 with the 1PN114 and 1PN110 scopes for the new AK-74M and RPG-7V2 and RPG-29 and the PN-21K NVG and 1PN106 scope series in 2003.
Image at 300m for 1PN114
AN/PVS-7
Russias first 4th Generation device (thin film autogated) would be the 1PN138 NVG monocle made in 2012 and approved for production in 2017 similarly the 1PN141-1 series of rifle scopes during same time, this would be followed on in 2016 with the GEO-ONV1M for Ka-52 and Mi-28 pilots with them being approved for production in 2019.
Russias first panoramic NVGs would be the 4th Generation ITO-NVSH made in 2019 and entering service in 2022.
4th gen 1PN138 up close
4th gen PVS-14 up close
This is another one that is pretty common. I have spoken to people who genuinely believe that the Soviets never even had FPA FLIR technology or that Russia had to buy French thermals to get them.
Both of these statements are nonsense. Russia was an open country, people forget that buying other countries military equipment is common. The new M10 Booker uses a French commander's sight with french optics. The M2A2-ODS-SA Bradley was made with French optics and British FCS. The standard M2A3 Bradley uses SADA optics made by Italian Leonardo. The new thermals on the Challenger 3 are licensed built Catherine-MP imagers. The new 18x US navy Constellation Frigates are licensed FREMM ships built with consolidation from Italy.
Meanwhile the Soviets had proper FLIR in mass use by the 80s mostly on reconnaissance systems. People just focus on the tanks.
So again when people say it's bad that Russia used French thermals for some of their tanks and IFVs; they are just admitting that they don't actually know how these things work.
It's honestly crazy how pervasive this myth is. What a lot of people don't understand is that it wasn't lack of technology or know-how in the 90s to adopt thermals but money. This was right after the collapse of the USSR and Russia was in turmoil from shock capitalism, hence why only some mass produce vehicles in the 90s received thermals and it wasn't until the 2000s that they were utilised on mass, but the technology and know how was always there.
Sources
Links for Russian equipment
https://nightvisionspecialists.com/pages/understanding-image-intensified-i2-night-vision
http://www.omsk.ru/industry/rossiyskie-teplovizory
https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0022-3735/2/8/309/pdf
https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/14/18/11161
https://www.photonics.com/Articles/Image_Intensification_The_Technology_of_Night/a25144
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/infrared-imaging
https://www.secretprojects.co.uk/threads/tank-thermal-sights-in-the-cold-war.33343/
https://crib-blog.blogspot.com/2022/07/progression-of-thermal-imaging-sight.html?m=1
https://www.16va.be/3.4_la_reco_part1_eng.html
https://www.secretprojects.co.uk/threads/su-17-22m4-kkr-1-pod.40772/
https://www.secretprojects.co.uk/threads/soviet-targeting-pods-mercuriy-lltv.40466/
https://en.topwar.ru/14990-pervye-sovetskie-pribory-nochnogo-videniya.html
https://m.weibo.cn/status/LndLT6bh2?jumpfrom=weibocom
https://andrei-bt.livejournal.com/1174038.html
https://crib-blog.blogspot.com/p/soviet-t01-k0x-sight-family.html?m=1
https://crib-blog.blogspot.com/2020/12/agava-agava-2-and-its-confusing-history.html?m=1
https://crib-blog.blogspot.com/2021/08/soviet-unionrussian-thermal-sight.html?m=1
https://tanks-encyclopedia.com/modern/russia/t-90-obr-1992-object-188/
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/OPFOR_Worldwide_Equipment_Guide.pdf
https://www.secretprojects.co.uk/threads/t-14-armata-new-gen-russian-tank.16341/
https://www.airvectors.net/avyak25.html#m3
https://www.tankarchives.com/2013/10/night-vision.html?m=1
https://russianoptics.net/nightvision.html
https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/russia/tu-243.htm
https://www.russiadefence.net/t5826-russian-made-scopes-and-optics
https://www.airvectors.net/avsu24.html#m2
http://www.navweaps.com/Weapons/WNRussian_51-70_ak130.php
https://www.kotsch88.de/f_agava-2.htm
https://www.kotsch88.de/f_nocturne.htm
https://www.oocities.org/russian_night_vision/
https://www.secretprojects.co.uk/threads/soviet-infrared-equipment-in-ww2.11514/
https://forum.warthunder.com/uploads/short-url/czxn5gRqp95ZE4KdzbWcpYlYz6X.zip
https://dzen.ru/a/ZShrgL4s0FYSevkb?ysclid=m8tkkwdf4w650507177
https://dzen.ru/a/YGDm0gOLIHkM4EIP
https://www.defence-industries.com/products/pco-sa/thermal-imaging-camera
https://bmpd.livejournal.com/4244403.html?ysclid=m8tkdo1kbg419305746&es=1
https://sdelanounas.ru/blogs/131051/?ysclid=m8thyk314x278554810
https://andrei-bt.livejournal.com/1692489.html?noscroll#comments
Books for Russian equipment
Scribd App, Jane's Electronic Mission Aircraft 2009. Jane's Helicopter Markets & Systems 2012. Sukhoi SU-7/17/22: Soviet Fighter and Fighter Bombers. Mil Mi-24 Hind: attack helicopter. MiG: fifty years of secret aircraft design. Science and technology in the USSR. Jane's Infantry Weapons 2021/2022. Jane's infantry weapons 1992/1993. Jane's Land Warfare Platforms: Artillery & Air Defence 2014-2015. Jane’s Land Based Air Defence Systems 1991/1992 & 1997/1998. Jane's Land Warfare Platforms 2012-2013 / 2022-2023. Jane's Electro Optical Systems 1997-1998. 1999-2000 & 2004-2005. Jane's Electronic Mission Aircraft 2009. Attack aircraft Su-25T Ildar Bedretdinov. Attack aircraft Su-25 Grach Victor Markovsky, Igor Prikhodchenko Sukhoi Su-25 Frogfoot. Alexander Mladenov Sukhoi ‘Frogfoot’ Su-25, Su-28 and Su-39. WEG 2016 Vol 2 Air and Air Defense Systems. Su-25 all variants 4+ publication. Monografie Lonticze Su-25 Su-34. Piotr Butowski Worldwide aviation 104.
Info on Generations
https://nightvisionguys.com/night-vision-generations
https://www.agmglobalvision.eu/blog/difference-between-night-vision-generations
https://www.airsoftsociety.com/threads/everything-you-need-to-know-about-night-vision-goggles.78368/
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